One of the greatest advances in human genetics is that of measuring the DNA of both males and females. Males are measured through the Y chromosome that is handed down from father to son in a continual line that mutates over time. This is called YDNA. Only males carry this through their Y chromosome, being XY. Females have XX chromosomes. Science says this rate of mutation is much slower than the Bible demands it to be in accord with its history of the nations as descended from Noah.

The female line is measured by testing their Mitochondrial DNA (termed mtDNA) that both males and females possess. Mitochondria are grouped in Haplogroups that relate to the lines of females in which they occur and this line is passed from mother to her offspring in the X chromosome, which both male and female possess.

The YDNA and mtDNA are measured in two different ways. YDNA is measured in what are termed polymorphs. These polymorphs are allocated a numeric value and, according to the value when tested, the sub-groupings that are formed are called clades and subclades of the overall grouping which is called a Haplogroup. These values record the change in YDNA mutations and lines.

The mtDNA is determined by reporting the polymorphic site such as for example 311C, meaning a mutation has occurred at base pair 16,311 and the base that changed here was actually changed to cytosine. The number 16,000 is the commencement point for DNA numbering and thus the 16,000 is dropped and the numbers used are the numbers in excess. So 16,311 becomes 311 and the letter indicates the chemical at that point in the polymorph. It is this change of the polymorphic site that determines the genetic ancestry, as the parent passes on to the offspring the DNA polymorphisms that they have with the same or similar numerical values. When tested, these values that are not exactly the same as the parent are termed mutations. The values thus vary and have determined the tribal groupings of the world’s nations.

The YDNA system that has been allocated to the male human species is grouped into a series of Haplogroups from A to R. The usual extensive measurement (using the Arizona system) is usually of 37 sites as markers. Basic testing is done for the first twelve, then to 25, and then on to 37 of these polymorphic sites, or locations to determine relatedness and Haplogroup association. There could be some 100 or more markers tested for changes (a.k.a. polymorphisms). An example of what might be a typical YDNA structure is as follows:

1	393	x
2	390	x
3	19*	x
4	391	x
5	385a	x
6	385b	x
7	426	x
8	388	x
9	439	x
10	389-1	x
11	392	x
12	389-2	x
13	458	x
14	459a	x
15	459b	x
16	455	x
17	454	x
18	447	x
19	437	x
20	448	x
21	449	x
22	464a**	x
23	464b**	x
24	464c**	x
25	464d**	x
26	460	x
27	GATA H4	x
28	YCA II a	x
29	YCA II b	x
30	456	x
31	607	x
32	576	x
33	570	x
34	CDY a	x
35	CDY b	x
36	442	x
37	438	x

*Also known as DYS 394

**On 5/19/2003, these values were adjusted down by 1 point because of a change in Lab nomenclature.

There are values that when tested are allocated to the right column of the table. Those values help determine whether a person has fallen into a typical Celt Haplogroup or one that is found among a Semite, or an Amerindian, or Polynesian, or Chinese or Japanese racial type. To properly determine the type, what is known as an SNP test is run, but the values from the 12, 25 and 37 marker tests point us in the right direction. No national group is of a pure genetic Haplogroup with the exception of some Amerindian tribes of the Q group in South America (from the charts produced by Dr. J. D. McDonald). The table above, depending on tested values, could be that of the typical R1b Celt of Europe or the Native Americans, both of whose DNA belongs to the last two Haplogroups on the scale.

mtDNA

The mitochondria, first sequenced in 1981, became known as the Cambridge Reference Sequence (CRS). The CRS has been used as a basis for comparison with individual mtDNA. In other words, any place in an individual mtDNA that has a difference from the CRS is characterized as a mutation. If a result shows no mutations at all it means that the mtDNA matches the CRS. A mutation happens when: a) a base replaces another base - for example a C (Cytosine) replaces an A (Adenine); b) a base is no longer in that position, or a deletion; and c) a new base is inserted between the other bases without replacing any other (an insertion).

That is how the mtDNA mutates. The original female DNA of the human species was confined to seven females, but in Europe only. Throughout the world there are about 26 sub-branches of the tree of humankind on the female lineages. Thus the female lineages might be argued to be explicable within the biblical terms in Europe only. The mtDNA thus requires harmonising with the Bible account by explaining the entire 26 female lines.

We are dependent on Science in its organising of the Haplogroups. As the Polymorphs mutate they alter the values and so the rate of mutation may well cause some movement between Haplogroups not yet identified.

Harmonising the Bible and Genetics

If the Bible is to answer the challenge posed by this very important genetic discovery, then it must place this structure over the Bible record and explain the distribution of nations within terms that can take account of, and properly answer, the challenges posed by the genetic trees of both the YDNA and the mtDNA of the species.

The female lineages may well have an effect on the male, causing mutations that are not as yet known, and an examination of that system will perhaps also reveal some important aspects. However, at present, other than known recombination, no direct effect on the male mutations caused by the female is scientifically demonstrated.

However, we now know that the mitochondria are directly responsible for the mutations of the human genetic structure. It inserts into active genes and causes mutation. This is especially so in DNA that is damaged by pollution or radiation, making them susceptible to further damage from stray mitochondrial DNA. Working genes are more prone to damage as their DNA is regularly unzipped to churn out proteins (New Scientist, 18 September 2004, art. "The enemy within that targets genes", p. 11).

"Miria Richetti at the Pasteur Institute in Paris and her team identified 211 insertions of mitochondria DNA across the genome, 23 of them new, 80 percent were in genes but genes only make up 3 per cent of the genome. The targets are widely transcribed genes, probably because they have more double strand breaks, says Richetti” (ibid.).

Jef Boeke at John Hopkins University thinks that Mitochondrial DNA is unlikely to be a major source of human gene mutation. However, there seemed to be a case of this directly related to the Chernobyl radiation disaster.

By comparing the sequences of 21 ethnically diverse volunteers, Richetti's team found six insertions that were not shared by all of them. (PLoS Biology, vol. 2, e273). The scientists held that "these must have occurred after our ancestors split from the ancestors of chimps and thus could give scientists clues about the origins of ethnic groups and historical migrations" (ibid.).

We are agreed that these mitochondria are capable of mutating the human genetic structure, and the incidence of intermarriage with new mitochondria are held to cause the mutations at an accelerating rate.

That is why isolated societies show the basic structure and less change than do the more open societies intermingling with other mitochondrial Haplogroups. For example, the RxR1 groups among the Australian Aborigines are also less affected. It is not an indicator of time, but rather one of intermarriage. The majority of the Aborignal Haplogroup C, however, is in fact C4 and is derived from the C basic groups that spread out along the South Asian coast from India to Vietnam. There is some C basic still there in pockets, but the Aborigines developed into the C4 group and then subdivided into two C4 sub-groups within Australia. The Maori developed into the C2 group and the Mongols into C3, which also went into the Americas. Both the Aboriginal and Maori languages contain many loan words from the Malay people and indicate that they once shared a common area and linguistic group. The Malays are, however, predominantly Hg O but do have some other groups. The Maori left their island home ca. 1000 CE after the rise of waters and went to New Zealand within the Medieval Warm Period when seas were higher.

There appears to be a problem in what is termed the Y-Chromosome Phylogenetic Tree in that the Haplogroup A is the first markedly divergent fork in the tree, and thus first to diverge from Hgs B to R. All Haplogroups have a fork at which they diverge.

We will look now at an overview of the Bible account. The Bible says simply that Noah was perfect in his generations and that he begat Japheth, then Ham and then Shem. The progeny of the sons of Noah are listed and the tribes and distribution are noted and so allow us a few precious clues to measure against the DNA record.

The Bible accounts have been construed as only allowing eight people on the Ark. However, the record may refer to eight males, as females were never mentioned in ancient genealogies except in very rare instances and sometimes only in the deletion of a prefix in the father’s name (see the paper The Genealogy of the Messiah (No. 119)).

This eight-male scenario is probable as Canaan was old enough in the first wine harvest after the Flood when Noah was drunk with new wine to have either sodomised him or castrated him. The Jewish traditions discuss both scenarios. That is the reason for the biblical curse on Canaan. Some hold that it was Ham, and Canaan bore the curse rather than Ham, but that seems to be to confine the eight mouths to both the males and females. The latter case is important to the DNA record in that only the sons’ wives would have then bred on and Noah’s wife’s mtDNA would have stopped unless there were females from Noah’s wife there as well, which is possible if only males are mentioned.

The male lines were thus Japheth and Shem with their wives, and Ham and the (four) sons of Ham and their wives, totalling seven males and seven females in addition to Noah and his wife.

This would then also allow eight females including Noah’s wife, thus providing the main seven female mtDNA lines; and that seems to accord with the current findings of mtDNA Haplogroups, but for Europe only. It might be argued that some mtDNA lines are later divisions. The scientific evidence indicates that there were seven so-called “Eves” to the genetic mtDNA pool in the Caucasian but that there are 26 female lines overall. Thus, the explanation must account for the entire sequence. The argument might thus be advanced that there were 26 females on the Ark that bred on.

This view would place Science in direct harmony with the Bible record as far as female lineages are concerned. We will also find that when we look at the mtDNA record for the female lines we are then able to place the female divisions in line with the YDNA male divisions. Thus we are able to see the break-up of the families of Noah in their world distribution. We will examine this aspect later.

The Noah gene pool

Noah was understood to be pure in his generations. The Bible also maintains that the people in the Ark were all the family of Noah. Thus, to properly account for the genetic diversity, Noah must have maintained the capacity to throw genetically distinct offspring, and this offspring had the characteristics of the line from which it came, but not the entire sequence that Noah had originally.

Conventional views of the YDNA systems are that they number back – 35,000 years and some say 60,000 to 130,000 years – and that the levels of mutation are slow. This extended view is based on mathematical models but seemingly to advance an evolutionary model. Further, no cognizance is taken of the impact of the diverse female DNA systems. The mtDNA is measured, but the effects of the female X chromosome on the male YDNA structure is considered important and it will be argued that it causes mutations in the YDNA structure at a much faster rate than the current model is believed to allow.

One of the known histories that we are able to examine is that of the Jews and we can identify a number of nations that come from them; and within their DNA structure we can see a great many people that are not actually Semite according to current wisdom. For example, 52% of all Ashkenazi Levites are not Semites according to the YDNA models and the current explanations. Thus we may have evidence here of a large number of converts to Judaism marrying into the tribes. In all probability this points to the Khazar conversion as the source of the Ashkenazi Levites. We will examine this aspect below.

Further, we know that the Buba clan of the Lemba people in Zimbabwe in the YDNA lines are all Cohenim of Levi, and the Lemba are predominantly Jewish YDNA even though they are black, having taken African wives after they were isolated at or after the Babylonian captivity. Their Judaism is much more basic than post-captivity Judaism and their calendar determination is based on the conjunction determined in advance. They have held their beliefs in a very basic form for up to 2,500 years separate from Judah.

All DNA distribution areas in this work are according to the known native populations prior to the European dispersion ca. 1500, according to testing.

For Noah to be the father of the human structure he is held to have had the capacity for the following YDNA substructure, as all humans are descended from him. Any male on the planet will have only the mutations that signify his branch and path.

M91, SRY 10831a, M42, M94, M139, M60, M181, RPS4Y_711,M216, YAP M145, M203, M174, SRY 4064, M96, P29, P14, M89, M213 and the core for the subsequent derivatives.

Noah held the base YDNA that was able to mutate into these other subgroups. The divisions that sprung from him are as follows:

Sons of Ham:

YDNA Haplogroup (Hg) A: M91 and subsequent derivatives

A1: M31

A2: M6, M14, M33, M49, M71, M135, M141, P3, P4, P5, MEH1, M196, M206

A3: M32

A3a: M28, M59

A3b M144, M190, M220

A3b1: M51

A3b2: M13, M63, M127

A3b2a: M171

A3b2b: M118

This tree is distinct from the other Hgs B to R.

This group is found predominantly in the Sudan >45%, Ethiopia > 15%, and South Africa > 30%. Very small elements of the Hg A are found in Cameroon, seemingly in Morocco, and among the Pygmies in Central Africa. The majority of these others are ExE3b and B for the Pygmies and in South Africa, or E3b for Morocco.

Africa is predominantly ExE3b and E3b with the B group distributed among them. The incidence of A in Africa is also seen with Haplogroup C at its root, prior to a group that stayed in Africa and a branch that left Africa.

Haplogroup B is comprised of M60, M181 then:

B1: M146

B2: M182

B2a: M150

B2a1: M109, M152, P32

B2a2: M108a

B2a2a: M43

B2b1: P6

B2b2: M115, M169

B2b3: M30, M129

B2b3a: M108b

B2b4: P7

B2b4a: P8

B2b4b: MSY2a, M211

Haplogroup B appears in smaller percentages in Mali, Cameroon, among the Pygmy of Central Africa, in South Africa, in Sudan and in Ethiopia. Haplogroups A and B do not appear in any significance outside of Africa or African Americans.

Haplogroup C

Haplogroup C is a very interesting Haplogroup. It is derived from the DNA groups M168 and P9 and then to the RPS4Y711 and M216 segments which form the basic C group. The basic C group is found among the Australian Aborigines. The divisions are:

C1: M8, M105, M131

C2: M38

C2a: P33

C3: M217, P44

C3a: M93

C3b: P39

C3c: M48, M77, M86

C4a

C4b

The C groups are found among the following people:

Australian Aborigines >65% (C4)

Maori >80% (C2)

French Polynesians >55%

Western Samoans >30%

Smaller percentages are found in Iryan Jaya, Borneo (Kalimantan), New Britain, and the Philippines;

Smaller percentages are also found in China and in Japan.

The major percentages are then found in Northern Asia:

Mongols up to 60%

Buryats up to 65%

Evenks up to 70%

Koryaks up to 35%

Altaians up to 23%

Khazaks up to 42%

Uzbeks up to 15%

Kyrgyzs some 10%

Yakuts 10%

There was an element (C3) that moved into the Amerindians in Alaska (say some 42%) and then to the Chippewa or Na-Dene in Canada (+- 6%) and the Cheyenne (>14%) and Apache (>12%) in USA. There is a very small percentage in the Greenland Eskimos showing extensive Arctic contact.

It is a matter of great significance that we have been able to unearth the point of departure for these people and tribes in Asia. The Choukoutien Upper Cave in China (discovered in 1930 and excavated by Pei 1938-1940) was found to be home to a family group occupying the same strata and comprised of Melanesoid, Eskimoid and Mongol types. Weidenreich held that the Wadjak remains were more like the adult female remains in the Upper Choukoutien Cave than with any Mediterraneans so far (R.M. and C.H. Berndt, Aboriginal Man in Australia, Angus and Robertson, 1965, pp. 30, 32-33).

Previously, Huxley (1870) had classified the Australian Aborigines as being the advance guard of the Dravidians that left the Mediterranean and Egypt and moved into India and on to Australia. He regarded the Dekkan Hill tribes, and more tenuously the Ancient Egyptians, as the only links with Aboriginal Australians (ibid., p. 33). He had classified the early men into four types: Negroids, Mongoloids, Xanthochroics and Australoids. The Tasmanian Aborigines he classified as a Melanesian branch of the Negroids. Wallace (1893) had said that the Australians were neither Negroid nor Mongoloid and classified them as early Caucasians (ibid.). However, this has been shown to be incorrect, and the Australian Aborigines are direct descendants of the division of Haplogroup C that left Africa or the Middle East. They are also comprised of another two Haplogroups, namely Hg K of the Melanesians and RxR1 basic, which is indeed a basic Aryan Haplogroup from which the R1a Slavs and the R1b Europeans are descended.

We now know from DNA that the finds in Choukoutien Cave of the same family with these three types were in fact correct. The YDNA of the tribal groups shows that these people are indeed all descended from the same paternal lines and the Australian is the basic C structure that moved into Australia from Africa via the North, with the Melanesians and Polynesians developing the Pacific, and the Mongols and what became the far-northern tribes going into Northern Asia.

There is no published DNA of which the writer is aware of the early Australoids that links the existing Australian Aborigines with the earlier finds in Australia. There are two major YDNA groups in Australia and they are C4 and K Haplogroups with an early RxR1 Haplogroup >10% which is only found in any significance in Cameroon (>40%) in Africa, and with smaller groups in Uzbekistan and among the Dravidians, and is rare in any event. That RxR1 group would justify the links to Africa and the Dravidians of India. However, that is the only link that the Australian Aborigines have with the Dravidians. The C4 group is a much better link and so the Aborigines in the main came from the group that formed the African groups and that also formed groups in Cameroon and North-East Africa.

The vast majority of Europeans are R1a and R1b and might be considered to have descended from this earlier RxR1 DNA link. However, the RxR1 Haplogroup is considered to preclude any ancient origin for the Aborigines. The 25% incidence of the K Hg shows movement of the early (proto-) Melanesians into Australia from the north. The C groups appear to have come from Africa/the Middle East into Central Asia. This aspect is explainable biblically as the Cushite split. The Western Cushites went into Africa through the Sudan and the Eastern Cushites went first into India and then moved on in groups. After the Aryan invasion of India in 1000 BCE they appear to have moved out of India. The Aborigines split from the C basic group on the South Asian coast, probably from their nomadic existence, and moved south into Australia probably by canoe. The others moved east and north into Asia, and then the Pacific. Thus the African origin may be explained by a split in the Middle East rather than the move from Asia, and there is thus a Central Asian origin not only for that element of the Aborigines but also for the entire Mongol and Pacific systems of the C group. The R basic groups are argued to have formed in India/Pakistan rather than being indicative of a Middle Eastern origin with migration into Africa and Australia. We will look at this aspect in dealing with Hg R. The diverse linguistic groups (8) for the Aborigines indicate some eight waves into Australia for at least three tribal Hg systems and probably more diverse migration.

There are no C Haplogroups in South America and thus the supposed link between the Maori and the South Americans is a myth. The predominant YDNA in America is the Q Haplogroup, with the C coming in there in far fewer numbers and only from Alaska into central North America in the Na-Dene, Cheyenne and Apache and on into the Maya in Central America.

It is considered that the C group might be misallocated in the charts and perhaps should be linked closer to the K groups that form the proto-Melanesoids of Hgs K and M. It might perhaps change places with Haplogroup E, but given the A and C arguments above in Africa that might not be so. The movement of the C groups were the minor groups with Q that moved into the Americas. Conventional wisdom says they moved 12-15,000 years ago but the Bible time-frame says otherwise.

Maoris have told the writer that the traditions of the canoes, which narrate the movement of the tribes and link their genealogy to those canoes arriving in New Zealand, do in fact allow for an African origin of the Maori. However, the C grouping DNA, with the incidence of O, seems to demand the central Asian origin and movement from the Chinese coast perhaps coinciding with the expansion of the Han. However, their Malay linguistic links indicate a southward movement into the Indo-Malay archipelago where the Maori and the Aborigines split into C4 and C2 by isolation. There is a trace of East and South-East Asian (O) YDNA in the Maori but there are greater elements in the Western Samoans and, to a slightly lesser extent, among French Polynesians. This may well indicate a Malay/Philippine influence on the Pacific tribes of the C system, but such influence is not evident in Irian Jaya, Papua New Guinea, and New Britain where we might expect to find it more readily. The arrival of the Maori in New Zealand is quite late and they replaced two previous civilisations in NZ in the early centuries of the second millennium of the Current Era. The first was a Papuan-type culture, which was forced to migrate, and the latter seems to be almost Celt in its stone structures. Their movement is thus quite distinct from the earlier Australian Aboriginal movement of both C and RxR1.

Haplogroup D

This Haplogroup is formed from the group D and E at the YAP division with M145 and M203 as the stem for both and M174 breaking into the D:

D1: M15

D2: M55, M57, M64a, P37a, P41a, 12f2b

D2a: P12, P42

D2b: M116a

D2B1: M125

D2b2: M151

This Haplogroup is confined to two peoples in any significance. These are Japan (>40%) and Tibet (>50%). The incidence of the Hg indicates that the Japanese and the Tibetans once were a people occupying the Eastern Steppes and they moved north-east into Japan and south into the mountains of Tibet. The language of the Japanese is Uralic-Altaic and has much in common with Finnish and Hungarian, Turkic, Altaic, Mongolian, Manchu/Tungus, Old Korean and the Northern Siberian languages (and anciently with Basque). Thus we can assume that Haplogroup D was once a tribe with a common language system with those of Haplogroup C and others identified below. The other Hg (O) for the Japanese and Tibetan indicates that the Chinese had interbred with them over the centuries, no doubt affecting the language system and customs from the areas of their movement. The Japanese have higher incidence of Hg C than do the Tibetans, perhaps from their exposure to the Mongols, the Buryats and Koryaks. However, the incidence of the Aboriginal Ainu may also be a factor in this due to population replacement in the later Japanese invasions.

The other significant incidence of D is perhaps from the trading influence of the Japanese in early time going to Sumatra and to Malaya. The more significant incidence is in Sumatra at up to 10%. The incidence in Malaya is less than 5% as is the R1a grouping there also, and for F, C and M with a slightly higher incidence of K. Borneo has a less than 5% D group also, as do the Uygurs, Altai, the Mongols, the Kyrgyz, Uzbeks and the Siberian Eskimo.

Haplogroup E

Haplogroup E is found in Africa in the main. It continues the Yap division at M145 and M203 to SRY 4064 M96 and P29, which form E basic.

E1: M33, M132

E1a: M44

E2: M75

E2a: M41

E2b: M54, M85, M90

E3: P2, DYS 391p

E3a: M2, P1

E3a1: M58

E3a2: M116b

E3a3: M149

E3a4: M154

E3a5: M165

E3a6: M10, M66, M156

E3b: M35, M215 (omitted from some charts but contained in Family Tree DNA 2005 Y-Chromosome Phylogenetic Tree, see www.familytreeDNA.com)

E3b1: M78

E3b1a: M148

E3b2: M81

E3b2a: M107

E3b2b: M165

E3b3: M123

E3b3a: M34

E3b3a1: M136

The E groups are found in Africa, with smaller incidence in the Middle East and Southern Europe. Some speculate the incidence of E3a in UK to be from Roman slaves in Britain; others view them as slaves coming in later times. Both views may well be correct.

ExE3b is highest in Burkina Faso at well over 90% and perhaps 99%.

ExE3b is high in Mali (60%), Cameroon (45%), amongst the Pygmy (65%) and in South Africa (55% approx.). This group has low incidence in the Sudan and Ethiopia.

E3b is very high in Morocco (approx. 75%) with an incidence of Hg J at approx. 10%. There is significant incidence in Mali (25%), Sudan (25%), and Ethiopia (55%,) South Africa (less than 10%). 15% of Middle-East Arabs and Persians are E3b, and some 10% of Italians and Iberians, and between 5% and 10% of Germans and Russians are E3b. Up to 5% of Georgians and Armenians are also E3b. East European Jews are 25% E3b. They may well have been converted to Judaism from the Sudan and Ethiopia, as there are Semitic elements in both areas. They may have been part of the mixed multitude in the Exodus. More likely, many were the Canaanites that were spared and joined Israel after the occupation under Joshua. We will examine these aspects when we look at the Semitic Haplogroups below.

These Haplogroups A to E are the sons of Ham. We will try to identify their tribes at a later date.

As stated, Haplogroup C may well have been misallocated and probably should appear in order after where E stands in the tree, next to F and this side of what is termed the YAP divide. Both D and E are defined by an insertion on the Y that D and E share while C and F do not have this insertion. They appear together more frequently in the tribal locations.

Haplogroup F

The F Haplogroup stems from the division between the Yap M145, M203 divide for D and E and the RPS4Y 711 M216 divide for the C group. It is a small group and sometimes acts as a catchall because researchers did not do enough testing to determine the group correctly. There are small F groups in Georgia/Armenia, Persia, Uzbekistan, among the Kazan Tartar and in Khazakstan. The conclusion is that the basic root of F is nearly gone but the prolific sons survived and flourished, producing the major national groups and the mutations that flowed from that stem.

This stem determines all the other Haplogroups from F to R.

The basic F is P14, M89, M213.

In biblical terms, both Shem and Japheth passed this core Haplogroup on to all their offspring. Perhaps Ham also passed it to one his sons. The charts would make Ham’s sons widely divergent.

The mtDNA puzzle

Before we examine the YDNA Haplogroups (Hgs) further, we will pose a problem and suggest a solution.

There are 26 mtDNA Haplogroups indicating 26 female mtDNA lines. Some seven original Hgs or female “Eves” are posed for Europe. However, when we examine the tree of mtDNA we find some interesting group derivatives. The so-called “supergroups” are really only in three basic groups. In other words, they came from three main female lines. That is what we would expect to find if we assume there were only three females that bred on from the Ark, namely the wives of Shem, Ham and Japheth. These Haplogroups are all descended from a single female supergroup, namely Haplogroup L. So in reality, all females are descended from one female line, Hg L. That is super L. This line then split into L1, and then L2 and L3. The line L3 diverged and from L3 came the other mtDNA mutations. Thus, all females came from one Eve whose mtDNA line was L.

The L groups L1, L2 and L3 are all found in Africa and are the major groups almost exclusively in sub-Saharan Africa. Only from Ethiopia north do we get large diversity of the mtDNA record. That is the basic reason why evolutionists claim that we all came out of Africa. The placement of the DNA groups can be seen in the work of J. D. McDonald who has grouped them by charts of Y and mtDNA Haplogroups available at:

http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mcdonald/WorldHaplogroupsMaps.pdf.

The supergroups M and N were next to diverge or mutate. From a biblical point of view we can argue easily that L was formed with Eve and the other groups were pre-Flood divisions that came on to the Ark. Thus, we could correctly argue that L, M, and N came on to the Ark within the accepted biblical account. It is also possible that the subdivision supergroup R may have come on, depending on the number of females on the Ark. All mtDNA Haplogroups are subdivisions of L, then M and N and subsequently R, which itself is a mutation of Hg N. Thus the only argument between the Bible account and modern scientific DNA is the supposition that the mathematical models require a much longer period than the Bible chronology to mutate. That assumption is based on the premise that mtDNA does not force mutation of the Human Genome and that assumption is now being shown to be false. The Bible statement that “death came by sin” is seemingly demonstrable as a condition of the human DNA system, as we saw previously. As seen from the Pasteur Institute research, mtDNA causes mutation where damage has occurred through disease, and also radiation, as we are now discovering. We are progressively mutating in our DNA through the direct influence of the Mitochondrial DNA on the Human Genome. We started perfect with Adam and we are getting weaker over time. We did not evolve; we degenerated. Our DNA mutated with exposure to mtDNA in its variant forms. It follows as a matter of logic that diverse mtDNA must cause further mutation in the Human Genome thus affecting the Y Chromosome.

Thus, from the original Hg L we get Hg M and Hg N. Both of these groups are independent direct mutations of Hg L.

Thus, we can assume that Eve produced the line L and the three wives of Shem, Ham and Japheth are at least the three groups L, M and N. There may have been further divisions given the fact that Noah may have had daughters not mentioned and their mtDNA line may have been L, or M or N. It may have even been R, if we assume that the entire L line came in through the wife of Ham, as the L line is almost confined to the sub-Saharan tribes. We also have to address the fact that Eve was dark skinned and the fact that Adam means the one who was red. Thus the capacity for the development of skin colour was an original trait of the human creation. The explanation for the decrease in melanin, which causes pigmentation, is that the further away from the equator you go the lighter your skin must be in order to survive. You get less vitamin D with an increase in melanin. Thus, you need less capacity to absorb vitamin D where the sun is greatest, and more melanin protection, but more capacity to absorb vitamin D and less protection where the sun is decreased. So the offspring of Noah simply got lighter in melanin the further north they moved.

The wives of Shem and Japheth were of the subdivisions of L, perhaps M and N or perhaps also R.

The two groups M and N formed the following subgroups:

M produced three subdivisions:

M subgroup including

C and Z, which split from each other, and D and G;

E subdivision; and

Q subdivision

We might thus also deduce that the wives of the sons of Noah were taken from the one family lineage, maintaining purity in the generations in the female line also. The L2 and L3 split may have come from the family structure before the Flood. The daughters of Noah and the wives of the sons could have carried all three of the L subdivisions and the basic core sub-groups of M, N and perhaps R.

It is therefore possible that the women of the Ark – even if there were only the daughter of Noah and the wives of Shem, Ham and Japheth – could easily have contained the basis for the modern mtDNA diversity. We would not be surprised to find such diversity in a family of married sons even today. In Palestine, Egypt and South Pakistan it is common today to find these groups.

Supergroup M

M is found in greatest quantities and percentages among the Indians and Pakistanis. From there the group spreads north and east to the Mongols and Han Chinese and on to Japan and Taiwan. The divisions of M into C and D occurred in the Eastern steppes among the Han and the Mongols and the Japanese. The C divisions occurred among the Mongols and sub-groups. The Evenks are predominantly C with only small percentages of M, D and U. The Buryats of Central Eastern Siberia are C and D with some L3 and then the mutation G. This mutation is carried east into the Nivikhs and is most prolific amongst the Itelmen of Eastern Siberia and goes on into the Chukchi of Far Eastern Siberia.

The mutation of M into Hg E occurred among the Aboriginal Taiwanese and in Kalimantan, being prolific in Sabah. The Q variant occurred in Papua New Guinea. Thus the above mtDNA variation occurred as the tribes moved progressively east from the Hindu Cush into Mongolia, China, South-East Asia and Melanesia.

This was the original progression of the mtDNA of the M supergroup after the Flood.

Supergroup N

The supergroup N is now found mostly in Central and East Asia and among the Australian Aborigines. The N group split into:

N subgroup, which included Haplogroups I and W;

The A and X subdivision;

Y subdivision; and

R subdivision.

Concentrations of base N are among the Australian Aborigines in approximately the same distribution as the YDNA Hg C is found there. That fact indicates that these people came to Australia probably from the Eastern distribution of the Cushites and stayed isolated. Their base DNA was not mutated by other mitochondrial intrusion. Their base structure does not argue for a long occupation but rather an isolated DNA system that suffered no forced mutation by intermarriage with other mtDNA Haplogroups.

The P structure in Australia may have come in with the YDNA Hg K and RxR1 from the Melanesians. There are high concentrations of both mtDNA Hg P and Q with some M. There is a very small mtDNA M in Australia, with a similarly small percentage of mtDNA N in Papua New Guinea. This would indicate occasional exchange, probably from captive women. There is an argument that the YDNA K and the mtDNA P may have been there with the Papuans when the Tasmanian Aborigines came and in fact preceded the Australian Aboriginal YDNA C and mtDNA N. That is uncertain but the Tasmanians were of a Papuan type as were the Moriori who preceded the Maori in NZ.

The N mtDNA structure is also among the Japanese, Han Chinese, Han Taiwanese, Altai, Uzbeks, Komi, Persians, Turks and also in Southern Russia. The N supergroup split into subgroups N, I and W.

The I subgroup is somewhat rare and appears as a significant percentage, albeit a small one, among the Kurds and into Turkey, probably from the Kurds there. It is a small percentage in Egypt and then goes into Iberia, France, UK, Scandinavia and Iceland. It appears the N and I split occurred in the Middle East before the N groups went east and the I Hg went west. W is also amongst the Kurds, as is U and K and HV and the H subdivision. Thus these two divisions and the sub-groups are represented there but the parent Hg R is not represented. The N, I, and W groups are all present in Palestine/Egypt. Mitochondrial DNA Hg I probably came from the Middle East with the Anglo-Saxons or the earlier Celtic movements, perhaps even after the fall of Troy in the 11^th century BCE.

The A and X mtDNA Haplogroups are predominant among the American Indians. Hg X, being a subdivision, occurred when they moved into the north-east of North America.

Y is a mutation that occurred in North Asia and is found among the Nivikhs.

Supergroup R

Haplogroup R is found among the Thai in greatest percentages, in India, South Pakistan, and in smaller percentages amongst the Han Chinese, and the Hazara.

The R supergroup split into the following:

HV, which split into H and V;

The J and T subdivision; and

U, from which came K.

Whilst Hg R is found among the Thai and others as above, the subdivision B is more telling. B is found amongst the Han Chinese, and in greater percentages in southern China, with larger percentages among the Aboriginal Taiwanese; but it is also present among the Han Taiwanese and the Japanese. Haplogroup B moved south to Papua New Guinea and is in greatest concentrations among the Polynesians, being over 90% of their mtDNA. The B subgroup is then found across the Pacific in greatest concentrations on the west coast of North, Central and South America, indicating that the movement was from central Asia to South-East Asia to Polynesia to the Americas; but the YDNA there in the Americas is not C but Q. It is only C with Q in Alaska and then out into central North America. This C route must also have been across to the north or, YDNA Q tribes took the women of YDNA C men and wiped them out. This may be so as the recent finds of a YDNA C basic male – identified as an Australian Aborigine on the West Coast of North America and predating any other finds to date – seems to indicate this migration.

The presence of groups A, X and D together indicate a Pacific crossing from North Asia with the A division from Hg N occurring in Taiwan and Japan and spreading north to the Chukchi of Far Eastern Siberia and across the Aleutians in two groups. The northern group was to become the Alaskan Eskimos and the southern group was to become the Alaskan Amerindians. The northern groups appear to have been the primary northern migration forming the Na-Dene (Chippewa) mtDNA (predominantly from Hg A). The A group went east and north and on into Greenland, with the D groups going on into South America with A, C and B as well as into the area of what is the south-eastern USA. The Q males thus had four lines of females with them including the later mtDNA variation U being found in North America but also in the area of what is now Chile. Thus, the settlement of the Americas was late, with the YDNA and mtDNA mutations being of the second to last forms.

The HV group mutated from R in the Middle East and both R and HV are found in Persia and South Pakistan. The Hg H variant is found from the Uzbeks and the Mansi, the Hazara, and the Komi in the Central Steppes right across Europe to Iceland. H forms the major mtDNA structure of the West Europeans. It is also found in Palestine, Egypt and NW Africa to Morocco. The Hg V variant is in smaller quantities except among the Saami of northern Scandinavia where the percentages are dramatically reversed. Percentages of R subdivision J, T, U and K are found in similar distribution over Europe with the exception of the Saami and Kurds, where U is predominant, except the K variant as found among the Kurds. The K variant is absent in the Saami, indicating they did not see that variation but split from the other U groups before it occurred. The other Northern Tribes in Russia, of the Kets and the Komi, have significant U but they also have F or T variations, which the Saami do not. The Saami also have some percentage of D as well as H and some Z.

The progressive mtDNA Haplogroup divisions are shown in the attached table.

No. 265

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